In this paper, the current research of an underwater optical wireless communication (UWOC) network is reviewed first. A hybrid laser diode (LD) and light-emitting diode (LED)-based UWOC system is then proposed and investigated, in which hybrid cluster-based networking with mobility restricted nodes is utilized to improve both the life cycle and throughput of the UWOC network. Moreover, the LEDs are utilized for the coarse alignment, while the LDs are used for high-precision positioning to reduce the difficulty of optical alignment. Finally, challenges and trends for UWOC are pointed out to provide some insight for potential future work of researchers.

One fast simulation method using Markov chains was introduced to simulate angular, energy, and temporal characteristics of pulsed laser beam propagation underwater. Angular dispersion of photons with a different number of collisions was calculated based on scattering function and the state transition matrix of Markov chains. Temporal distribution and energy on the receiving plane were obtained, respectively, by use of a novel successive layering model and receiving ratio. The validity of this method was verified by comparing it with the Monte Carlo ray tracing (MCRT) method. The simulation results were close to those obtained by MCRT but were less time consuming and had smoother curves.

A 50 Gb/s four-level pulse amplitude modulation (PAM4) underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) system across the water–air–water interface is demonstrated in practice. In practical scenarios, laser beam misalignment due to oceanic turbulence degrades performance in UWOC systems. With the adoption of a reflective spatial light modulator (SLM) with an electrical controller, not only can the laser be arbitrarily adjusted to attain a water–air–water scenario, but oceanic engineering problems can also be resolved to establish a reliable UWOC link. Brilliant bit error rate performance and clear PAM4 eye diagrams are attained by adopting a Keplerian beam expander and a reflective SLM with an electrical controller. This proposed PAM4 UWOC system presents a feasible state that outperforms existing UWOC systems due to its feature providing a high-speed water–air–water link.

This Letter investigates the performance of the two-way multi-hop system for underwater optical wireless communications. With the decode-and-forward (DF) relaying, the two-way multi-hop system is modeled, where the effects of absorption, scattering, and oceanic turbulence are all taken into account. An exact closed-form expression for outage probability is derived under the assumption that the oceanic turbulence obeys a log-normal distribution. Numerical results demonstrate the impacts of various parameters on the outage performance and indicate that the two-way multi-hop system significantly improves the performance in comparison to both the one-way multi-hop system and the two-way two-hop system.

We systematically investigate the bubble-induced performance degradation for underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) with different bubble sizes and positions. By using different transmit and receive diversities, we investigate the effectiveness of spatial diversity on the mitigation of the bubble-induced impairment to the UOWC link. With the help of a 2 × 2 multiple input multiple output using repetition coding and maximum ratio combining, a robust 780 Mbit/s UOWC transmission is achieved. The corresponding outage probability can be significantly reduced from 34.6% for the system without diversity to less than 1%.

Foreseeing the proliferation of underwater vehicles and sensors, underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) is a key enabler for ocean exploration, with strong competitiveness in short-range bandwidth-intensive applications. We provide a tutorial on the basic concepts and essential features of UWOC, as well as an overview of work being conducted in this field. Research challenges, arising from the characteristics of underwater channels, and possible roadmaps are discussed in detail. This review is expected to be of great use for the link designers of this field.

The received signal intensity fluctuation and communication performance of an underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) system under the air bubble effects are experimentally investigated. For different bubble density and size, lognormal, gamma, Weibull, and generalized extreme value distributions are tested to fit the fluctuation of the signal intensity at the receiving end. The best fitting distribution is found to vary with bubble parameters. The communication system performance with on–off keying and pulse position modulation is further studied.

The growing number of underwater activities is giving momentum to the development of new technologies, such as buoys, remotely operated vehicles, and autonomous underwater vehicles. The data collected by these vehicles need to be transmitted to a high-speed central unit. Clearly, wired solutions are not suitable, since they strongly impact the mobility. In this scenario, a promising solution is offered by underwater optical wireless communication (UOWC) technology, which can achieve both high-speed and wireless operation. Here, we provide a comprehensive survey on the challenges, the experimental realizations, and the state of the art in UOWC researches.

In this work, a blue gallium nitride (GaN) micro-light-emitting-diode (micro-LED)-based underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) system was built, and UWOCs with varied Maalox, chlorophyll, and sea salt concentrations were studied. Data transmission performance of the UWOC and the influence of light attenuation were investigated systematically. Maximum data transmission rates at the distance of 2.3 m were 933, 800, 910, and 790 Mbps for experimental conditions with no impurity, 200.48 mg/m³ Maalox, 12.07 mg/m³ chlorophyll, and 5 kg/m³ sea salt, respectively, much higher than previously reported systems with commercial LEDs. It was found that increasing chlorophyll, Maalox, and sea salt concentrations in water resulted in an increase of light attenuation, which led to the performance degradation of the UWOC. Further analysis suggests two light attenuation mechanisms, e.g., absorption by chlorophyll and scattering by Maalox, are responsible for the decrease of maximum data rates and the increase of bit error rates. Based on the absorption and scattering models, excellent fitting to the experimental attenuation coefficient can be achieved, and light attenuation by absorption and scattering at different wavelengths was also investigated. We believe this work is instructive apply UWOC for practical applications.

Underwater visible light communication (UVLC) is expected to act as an alternative candidate in next-generation underwater 5G wireless optical communications. To realize high-speed UVLC, the challenge is the absorption, scattering, and turbulence of a water medium and the nonlinear response from imperfect optoelectronic devices that can bring large attenuations and a nonlinearity penalty. Nonlinear adaptive filters are commonly used in optical communication to compensate for nonlinearity. In this paper, we compare a recursive least square (RLS)-based Volterra filter, a least mean square (LMS)-based digital polynomial filter, and an LMS-based Volterra filter in terms of performance and computational complexity in underwater visible light communication. We experimentally demonstrate 2.325 Gb/s transmission through 1.2 m of water with a commercial blue light-emitting diode. Our goal is to assist the readers in refining the motivation, structure, performance, and cost of powerful nonlinear adaptive filters in the context of future underwater visible light communication in order to tap into hitherto unexplored applications and services.

In this paper, recent advances in underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) are reviewed for both LED- and LD-based systems, mainly from a perspective of advanced modulation formats. Volterra series-based nonlinear equalizers, which can effectively counteract the nonlinear impairments induced by the UWOC system components, are discussed and experimentally demonstrated. Both the effectiveness and robustness of the proposed Volterra nonlinear equalizer in UWOC systems under different water turbidities are validated. To further approach the Shannon capacity limit of the UWOC system, the probabilistic constellation shaping technique is introduced, which can overcome the inherent gap between a conventional regular quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) format and the Shannon capacity of the channel. The experimental results have shown a significant system capacity improvement compared to the cases using a regular QAM.

Conventional line-of-sight underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) links suffer from huge signal fading in the presence of oceanic turbulence due to misalignment, which is caused by variations in the refractive index in the water. Non-line-of-sight (NLOS) communication, a novel underwater communication configuration, which has eased the requirements on the alignment, is supposed to enhance the robustness of the UWOC links in the presence of such turbulence. This Letter experimentally and statistically studies the impact of turbulence that arises from temperature gradient variations and the presence of different air bubble populations on NLOS optical channels. The results suggest that temperature gradient-induced turbulence causes negligible signal fading to the NLOS link. Furthermore, the presence of air bubbles with different populations and sizes can enhance the received signal power by seizing the scattering phenomena from an ultraviolet 377 nm laser diode.

A vapor cell provides a well-controlled and stable inner atmosphere for atomic sensors, such as atomic gyroscopes, atomic magnetometers, and atomic clocks, and its hermeticity affects the stability and aging of atomic sensors. We present the micro-fabrication of a micro-electromechanical system wafer-level hermit vapor cell based on deep reactive ion etching and vacuum anodic-bonding technology. The anodic-bonding process with the voltage increasing in steps of 200 V had a critical influence on vapor cell hermeticity. Further, the silicon–glass bonding surface was experimentally investigated by a scanning electron microscope, which illustrated that there were no visual cracks and defects in the bonding surface. The leak rate was measured using a helium leak detector. The result shows that the vapor cells with different optical cavity lengths comply with the MIL-STD-883E standard (5 × 10 ⁸ mbar·L/s). Moreover, D2 absorption spectroscopy was characterized via optical absorption. The bonding strength was determined to be 13 MPa, which further verified the quality of the vapor cells.

The impulse response for a phase-change material Ge₂Sb₂Te₅ (GST)-based photodetector integrated with a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) waveguide is simulated using finite difference time domain method. The current is calculated by solving the drift-diffusion model for short pulse (～10 fs) excitation for both of the stable phases. Full width at half-maximum values of less than 1 ps are found in the investigation. The crystalline GST has higher 3 dB bandwidth than the amorphous GST at a 1550 nm wavelength with responsivities of 21 A/W and 18.5 A/W, respectively, for a 150 nm thick GST layer biased at 2 V. A broad spectrum can be utilized by tuning the device using the phase-change property of material in the near infrared region.

A complex-coefficient microwave photonic filter with continuous tunability is proposed and demonstrated, which has a compact structure and stable performance without splitting the optical path and tuning the polarization state. By only controlling the DC biases of the modulator, the amplitudes and the phases of the filter taps can both be tuned. The phase difference between the two filter taps covers a full 360° range from 10 GHz to 32 GHz. Frequency responses of the proposed filter are measured within 10–20 GHz with different center frequencies.

High-rate techniques, such as optical orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and color shift keying (CSK), have been proposed for visible light communication (VLC). To fully exploit their advantages, in this Letter, we design a modulation scheme called rotated polarity modulation (RPM) aided complex CSK (CCSK) for OFDM-based VLC systems and derive its theoretical bit error rate and an optimal scaling factor. Analytical and simulation results show that in comparison to the existing schemes, the new RPM-CCSK-OFDM system offers an improved link performance and data rate under a modest complexity. It can also be applied to VLC systems equipped with different types of LED devices, thus enabling flexible deployments.

Inspired by recent rapid deep learning development, we present a convolutional-neural-network (CNN)-based algorithm to predict orbital angular momentum (OAM) mode purity in optical fibers using far-field patterns. It is found that this image-processing-based technique has an excellent ability in predicting the OAM mode purity, potentially eliminating the need of using bulk optic devices to project light into different polarization states in traditional methods. The excellent performance of our algorithm can be characterized by a prediction accuracy of 99.8% and correlation coefficient of 0.99994. Furthermore, the robustness of this technique against different sizes of testing sets and different phases between different fiber modes is also verified. Hence, such a technique has a great potential in simplifying the measuring process of OAM purity.

Using the few-mode erbium-doped fiber (FM-EDF) with a simple two-layer erbium-doped structure, we demonstrate an all-fiber FM-EDF amplifier. The gain equalization among the six spatial modes supported by the FM-EDF is achieved when only the pump in the fundamental mode (LP₀₁) is applied. When the signals in six spatial modes are simultaneously amplified, the average modal gain is about 15 dB, and differential modal gain is about 2.5 dB for the signal at 1550 nm.

Using a heavily erbium-doped aluminosilicate fiber prepared by the sol-gel method combined with high temperature sintering, the temperature dependence of the spectrum around the 1.55 nm band and single-mode fiber laser properties were investigated, respectively. The absorption cross section increases 29.2% at ～1558 nm with the temperature increasing from 20°C to 140°C, while the emission cross section slightly increases 4.3%. In addition, the laser slope of the heavily erbium-doped aluminosilicate fiber at 1558 nm decreases 4.4% from 10.8% to 6.4% with the temperature increasing from 18°C to 440°C. Meanwhile, an experiment lasting 3 h proves that the fiber laser has excellent stability below 440°C.

Particle ejection is an important process during laser-induced exit surface damage in fused silica. Huge quantities of ejected particles, large ejection velocity, and long ejection duration make this phenomenon difficult to be directly observed. An in situ two-frame shadowgraphy system combined with a digital particle recognition algorithm was employed to capture the transient ejecting images and obtain the particle parameters. The experimental system is based on the principle of polarization splitting and can capture two images at each damage event. By combining multiple similar damage events at different time delays, the timeline of ejecting evolution can be obtained. Particle recognition is achieved by an adaptively regularized kernel-based fuzzy C-means algorithm based on a grey wolf optimizer. This algorithm overcomes the shortcoming of the adaptively regularized kernel-based fuzzy C-means algorithm easily falling into the local optimum and can resist strong image noises, including diffraction pattern, laser speckle, and motion artifact. This system is able to capture particles ejected after 600 ns with a time resolution of 6 ns and spatial resolution better than 5 μm under the particle recognition accuracy of 100%.

Phosphor in glass (PiG) employing Ce:Y₃Al₅O₁₂ (YAG)-doped boro-bismuthate glass via low-temperature co-sintering technology was successfully prepared, using Bi₂O₃-B₂O₃-ZnO glass as the base material. The photoluminescence (PL) of PiG co-sintered at times ranging from 20 min to 60 min at 700°C was investigated. As a result, the relative PL intensity of PiG under a reducing atmosphere of CO showed significant enhancement of about 7–14 times that under air atmosphere sintering for 20–50 min. The PL intensity decreased gradually with the co-sintering time, which may be due to the corrosion of the YAG lattice structure.