深组织光片荧光显微成像研究进展(特邀)创刊六十周年特邀
1 引言
光学显微镜自发明以来,已经历了几个世纪的发展历程。光学显微镜凭借其非接触性、低侵入性及多样化的成像机制,在近现代细胞学和生物学研究中发挥着卓越的作用,并展现出广泛的适用性[1]。20世纪90年代,随着基因编码荧光蛋白的出现,生物学家能够利用多种颜色的荧光蛋白标记生物体内的不同细胞,使荧光显微镜成为一种重要的成像工具[2]。荧光显微镜具有高时空分辨率和对生物样本损伤小等特性,能够实现对特定目标的精准成像。随着新型荧光探针的持续发现和研制,荧光显微成像技术得到了迅速推进并不断创新[3],共聚焦激光扫描显微镜(CLSM)、全内反射荧光显微镜以及多光子荧光显微镜等新型技术应运而生。
CLSM[4]的出现,为三维活体样本的非侵入性成像提供了一种新的途径。然而,该技术利用逐点扫描的方式实现三维图像构建,焦点处的功率较高,导致严重的光漂白和光毒性等问题,并且采集速度较慢,不适合长时间的活体成像。此外,该方法在穿透深度方面有一定的局限性,且对样本的均匀性及低散射性有较高的要求。随着研究的不断深入,生物学家们不再局限于基础的生物样本,而是转向观测更为复杂的生命体,如组织器官等结构[5],以及整个胚胎发育的实时动态过程。
在这一背景下,光片荧光显微镜(LSFM),也称为选择平面照明显微镜(SPIM),成为应对现代生物学中成像挑战的关键技术之一[6]。尽管光片显微镜已经存在一个多世纪了,但直到2004年才被发展为适用于现代生物学研究的成像技术[7]。该技术通过照明与探测正交的方式实现三维图像采集,与传统荧光显微成像技术相比,它只激发焦点处的荧光,有效减少了离焦荧光信号的干扰,从而降低了光漂白与光毒性。此外,采用片状光一次性照亮整个平面,能够快速捕获大量数据,光片荧光显微镜的低光毒性与高采集速率使其特别适合追踪活体样本的动态过程。目前,光片荧光显微成像技术已经具备光损伤低、采集速度快、成像视场大等优势,然而,在进行如大脑或心脏的厚层切片和肿瘤组织等高散射生物样本的观测时,其内部的复杂结构和光学异质性导致光片在样品内产生严重的散射与吸收,进而引起图像模糊或失真。因此,提升光片荧光显微镜在减弱散射与穿透深层组织方面的能力,是当前研究亟需解决的关键难题。
本文旨在阐述光片荧光显微成像技术在深组织成像研究中面临的主要挑战,并介绍了应对高散射和提高成像深度的解决方案。首先,介绍光片荧光显微成像的基本原理,分析高散射与吸收的成因及其对成像的影响。然后,从多个角度介绍现有的几种提高穿透深度和应对样品散射挑战的技术,包括激发光调制、多视图融合、非线性效应、波前整形及样品处理等。最后,展望具有高穿透深度、强抗散射能力的光片荧光显微镜在生物学研究中的发展前景。
2 光片荧光显微成像原理及高散射与吸收成因
2.1 光片荧光显微成像原理
图 1. 光片荧光显微成像原理图和散射成因及影响。(a)照明与探测结构[25];(b)两种光片生成方式[25];(c)光入射到Z0处的散射情况[17];(d)散射后荧光微球的三维PSF[20]
Fig. 1. Schematic of light sheet fluorescence microscopic imaging and scattering causes and effects. (a) Illumination and detection structure[25]; (b) two modes of light sheet generation[25]; (c) scattering of light incident to Z0[17]; (d) 3D PSF of fluorescent beads after scattering[20]
光片荧光显微镜的照明光路主要用于光片的形成,其厚度决定了系统的光学切片能力,探测光路则决定了系统横向分辨率,并与光片厚度共同影响系统的轴向分辨率。因此,光片的性能对光片荧光显微镜的成像效果至关重要[8]。如
2.2 高散射与吸收成因及影响
物理散射和吸收是影响光学显微成像的主要因素。散射通常由组织结构中的细胞和纤维等散射体引起,这些结构在光的传播路径上形成障碍,使光发生偏折和散射[15-16],
尽管光片荧光显微镜在一定程度上能够实现深组织成像,但在高散射和吸收的生物样本观测时仍面临诸多挑战[21]。光片荧光显微镜从侧面一次照亮整个平面,这种照明方式的缺点是所采集的数据中存在条纹伪影,图像质量下降,这也是由样品中散射和吸收引起的[22]。散射会减弱焦点处的荧光信号,并且由散射发出的光子会在焦点体积外产生荧光,从而导致图像的对比度降低。在透明度较高的生物样本如斑马鱼胚胎中,样品散射产生的影响较小,可以在不透明化组织的情况下直接进行样本的快速成像[23],而光片荧光显微镜最常见的用途为对胚胎和器官成像,这些样本往往是较厚且不均匀的散射样本。在密度更高且体积较大的生物样本如果蝇及小鼠大脑中,样品的不透明性削弱了光线的穿透能力,导致图像上出现严重的伪影[24]。为了解决光片荧光显微成像技术面临的样品高散射和吸收所引起的图像对比度降低的问题,可将核心设计原则扩展到多种方式。
3 主要技术进展
下面介绍光片显微镜在解决穿透深度浅以及光散射和吸收问题方面的最新进展。该类问题的基本解决方案是改变激发光[26-28],例如使用更长波长的激发光和不同类型的无衍射光束;更直接的方法是从多个角度收集样本信息[29-33],并将这些图像融合以构建样本的三维图像。在成像某些深层组织时,多光子激发技术已被证明能够将组织穿透深度增加到1 mm以上[19,21];除此之外,波前校正技术也被用于进一步提升光学穿透深度[34-37]。对于固定的组织样本,组织透明化[13,18,38-40]或者组织膨胀处理[41-44]是一种有效的方法,可以在很大程度上减弱光散射引起的成像深度限制。
3.1 激发光调制
如
图 2. 3种不同模式的光片及近红外激发策略。(a)~(c)高斯、贝塞尔、艾里光片[27];(d)不同光束类型的光片沿着x轴的传播情况及荧光微球的最大强度投影图像[27];(e)3种波长的激发光在小鼠脑组织中的穿透深度对比[48]
Fig. 2. Three different modes of light sheets and NIR excitation strategies. (a)‒(c) Gaussian, Bessel, and Airy light sheets[27]; (d) propagation of light sheets with different beam types along x-axis and maximum intensity projection images of fluorescent beads[27]; (e) comparison of penetration depths of excitation light of three wavelengths in the brain tissue of mice[48]
使用近红外激发光是另一种有效策略,较长波长的光具有更长的散射平均自由程,意味着在发生散射前,光束可以传播更远的距离[47]。这使得这些光束在生物组织中传播时,更不容易被介质中的小颗粒散射,从而实现了更深的组织穿透。Wang等[48]利用所开发的近红外二区(NIR-Ⅱ,1000~1700 nm)光片显微镜对3种不同波长的激光在小鼠脑组织中的穿透深度进行比较,如
3.2 多视图融合
在成像高散射生物样本时,样本中的光吸收和散射降低了光片的质量,进而限制了有效视场,导致随着成像深度增加,图像质量下降。多视图融合技术通过同时获取样本不同视角或不同光路的成像信息,将这些信息融合,有效降低了散射的影响,提高了深组织成像的质量。这种方法可以通过使用多个探测器、采用不同的光路或不同的照明条件来实现,并利用多视图融合算法对样本进行三维重建。
如
图 3. 多视图融合光片显微系统设计。(a)顺序多视图SPIM系统原理图[7];(b)不同方向的斑马鱼融合图像[7];(c)双向照明SPIM系统原理图[29];(d)不同深度斑马鱼脑部图像及其放大区域图像[29];(e)同步多视图SPIM系统原理图[30];(f)果蝇合胞胚胎重建图像[30]
Fig. 3. Multi-view fused light sheet microscopy system design. (a) Schematic of sequential multi-view SPIM system[7]; (b) different orientations of zebrafish fusion images[7]; (c) schematic of SPIM system with dual-view illumination[29]; (d) images of zebrafish brain at different depths and images of its magnified regions[29]; (e) schematic of synchronized multi-view SPIM system[30]; (f) reconstructed images of Drosophila melanogaster syncytiotrophoblast embryos[30]
为了解决以上问题,研究人员提出具有多条同步检测路径的光片显微镜,该方法能够消除缓慢的顺序多视图成像所造成的时空伪影。然而,该技术在系统构建上仍然面临挑战。Tomer等[30]开发了同步多视图选择平面照明显微镜(SiMView-SPIM),如
3.3 非线性光学
非线性光学效应是指在高光强条件下,光与物质的相互作用不再遵循传统的线性光学规律而出现的非线性响应,分别为双光子吸收(2PA)、二次谐波发生(SHG)和相干反斯托克斯拉曼散射(CARS)[61],如
图 4. 非线性光学效应。(a)三种非线性效应[61];(b)线性与非线性激发特性[61];(c)线性与非线性荧光激发下贝塞尔光束的Z轴剖面图[28];(d)荧光微球的线性与非线性激发成像对比[28];(e)斑马鱼幼虫的全脑区域单光子与双光子激发成像对比[71]
Fig. 4. Nonlinear optical effects. (a) Three nonlinear effects[61]; (b) linear and nonlinear excitation properties[61]; (c) Z-axis profiles of Bessel beams under linear and nonlinear fluorescence excitation[28]; (d) comparison of linear and nonlinear excitation imaging of fluorescent beads[28]; (e) comparison of one-photon and two-photon excitation imaging of whole-brain regions in zebrafish larvae[71]
双光子光片显微镜将非线性激发与正交照明相结合,已成为深组织成像的金标准[69],这种方法利用近红外光与非线性激发效应,特别适用于厚组织的深层成像。相比于传统的单光子光片显微镜,双光子光片显微镜在生物组织中提供至少2倍的穿透深度,同时受散射效应的影响更小[70]。Fahrbach等[28]将双光子激发与光片显微镜结合,对比了线性和非线性荧光激发贝塞尔光束的Z轴剖面图,如
3.4 波前校正
自适应光学(AO)最初是为天文望远镜开发的方法,在过去的10年中成功应用于光学显微镜[34]。在各类荧光显微镜中,自适应光学已成为校正像差和恢复衍射极限分辨率非常有价值的工具[34],其核心原理是利用动态元件如可变形镜或空间光调制器进行波前控制。这种主动补偿机制可以校正成像系统产生的相位畸变,减少系统由光学元件及样品本身引起的像差,从而优化成像系统的性能[35]。波前的校正可以通过直接波前传感技术实现,通常使用Shack-Hartmann波前传感器,或者采用迭代的无传感器方法来调整可变形镜或空间光调制器,以产生理想的、无畸变的波前。通过这种方式,自适应光学技术可以降低样品散射对成像的影响,提高穿透深度和图像质量。
自适应光学结合光片显微镜应用于深组织成像方面已取得显著成效。Bourgenot等[36]采用无波前传感器的方法,如
图 5. 波前校正。(a)探测光路中加入可变形镜的自适应光片显微系统光路图[36];(b)有无自适应光学校正的转基因斑马鱼图像对比[36];(c)基于AutoPilot框架的自适应成像系统的自由度和工作流程图[37];(d)斑马鱼幼体中脑区域自适应校正和未校正的图像对比[37];(e)自适应晶格光片系统光路图[75];(f)斑马鱼胚胎脊骨自适应校正前后的切片比较[75]
Fig. 5. Wavefront correction. (a) Optical pathway diagram of an adaptive light-sheet microscopy system with deformable mirrors in the detection optical pathway[36]; (b) comparison of transgenic zebrafish images with and without adaptive optical correction[36]; (c) degrees of freedom and workflow diagram of an adaptive imaging system based on the AutoPilot framework[37]; (d) comparison of adaptive-corrected and uncorrected images of zebrafish larval midbrain regions[37]; (e) adaptive lattice light-sheet system optical pathway diagram[75]; (f) comparison of sections before and after adaptive correction of the spine of zebrafish embryos[75]
3.5 样品处理
在生物学成像领域,无论是光片荧光显微镜还是其他传统光学显微镜,普遍面临一个限制:只适用于观测透明或半透明样本,例如无色素的斑马鱼幼体或胚胎[76]等,这类样本在光片显微镜下能够获得较好的成像效果,因为光片能够穿透这些样本。然而,在实际的生物学应用中,多数样本并不具备足够高的透明度,这就成为研究人员观测复杂样本的一大挑战。为了应对上述挑战,研究人员尝试通过调整物镜浸没介质的折射率来降低组织的散射[38,77],以增强光片的穿透能力。然而,这种方法在提高样品透明度和穿透能力方面的效果是有限的。因此,研究人员开始探索更加有效的方法来“透明化”这些原本不透明的样品。在这种需求的驱动下,组织透明化技术和组织膨胀技术等创新手段相继被开发出来,为深入观测复杂的多细胞生物样本提供了可能。
早期的组织透明化技术着重于将生物样本脱水处理,并用与脂质膜折射率相匹配的油代替水以减少光散射。
图 6. 样品处理。(a)未处理和经过透明化处理的肺叶对比[78];(b)组织膨胀前后的小鼠大脑对比[82];(c)双向照明光片成像系统光路图[79];(d)由550张光学切片重建的小鼠大脑[79];(e)部分海马区域的三维重建图像[79];(f)果蝇神经纤维和突触结构的三维重建图像[83];(g)小鼠大脑血管网络的三维重建图像[39]
Fig. 6. Sample processing. (a) Comparison of tissue unclearing and clearing lung lobes[78]; (b) comparison of mouse brains before and after tissue expansion[82]; (c) dual-view illumination light sheet imaging system[79]; (d) reconstruction of the mouse brain from 550 optical slices[79]; (e) 3D reconstructed image of some hippocampal regions[79]; (f) 3D reconstructed image of nerve fiber and synaptic structures of Drosophila melanogaster[83]; (g) 3D reconstructed image of the vascular network in mouse brain[39]
4 深组织光片荧光显微成像应用
4.1 发育生物学
光片荧光显微镜因其低光毒性和光损伤特性,已成为实时活体样本成像的理想选择。该技术最初主要应用于发育生物学领域[84],包括胚胎发育、细胞间相互作用,以及发育过程中分子、细胞的定量分析等。在这一领域的研究中,成像的生物样本常为大型多细胞生物,成像质量受到光散射的极大限制,如细胞分化和组织形成等关键的生物学过程往往发生在生物体的深层组织中。传统的光学成像技术在深层组织中的应用受到光散射的严重限制,而深组织光片荧光显微镜能够有效应对样本内部的光散射问题,使研究人员能够更加深入和清晰地观察包括胚胎发育及神经系统发展在内的复杂生物过程。
Keller等[60]利用数字扫描光片显微镜实现了对斑马鱼胚胎在发育初期24小时内细胞核定位和运动的亚细胞分辨率成像,全面分析了斑马鱼胚胎发育过程中细胞和基因表达的动态过程,如
图 7. 光片显微成像在发育生物学中的应用。(a)斑马鱼胚胎发育过程中细胞和基因表达成像[60];(b)(c)果蝇原肠受精胚胎的多视图成像[31];(d)小鼠细胞水平发育的长时间实时成像[85];(e)表达荧光血管标志物的斑马鱼胚胎成像[86]
Fig. 7. Applications of light-sheet microscopic imaging in developmental biology. (a) Imaging of cell and gene expression during zebrafish embryo development[60]; (b) (c) multi-view imaging of gastrulation-fertilized embryos in Drosophila melanogaster[31]; (d) long-term real-time imaging of cellular level development in mice[85]; (e) imaging of zebrafish embryos expressing fluorescent vascular markers[86]
4.2 神经科学
神经系统的发育、成熟和维持,尤其是大脑及其在行为和认知中所起的作用,是长期以来众多科学研究的重点[87]。光片荧光显微成像技术能够在最小的光损伤下以快速、高对比度的光学切片成像大型三维样品,因此非常适于获取神经系统的功能成像和大脑的形态学研究[88]。深组织光片成像技术为神经科学研究提供了一个强大的工具,有助于更深入、更细致地研究神经系统的结构和功能。
Ahrens等[29]开发了同步多视图光片显微镜(SiMView),该系统采用从样品两侧入射的扫描光片来记录完整的斑马鱼大脑中几乎所有神经元单细胞分辨率成像。
图 8. 光片显微成像在神经科学中的应用。(a)斑马鱼全脑神经元多视图成像[29];(b)对比异基因与同基因斑马鱼的后神经节和侧线的正常与异常表达模式成像[89];(c)成年小鼠中央神经系统成像[90];(d)在斑马鱼大脑中进行的单个神经细胞体和轴突实时成像[91]
Fig. 8. Applications of light-sheet microscopic imaging in neuroscience. (a) Multi-view imaging of neurons in the whole brain of zebrafish[29]; (b) imaging of normal and abnormal expression patterns in the posterior ganglia and lateral line comparing heterozygous versus homozygous zebrafish[89]; (c) imaging of central nervous system in the adult mouse[90]; (d) real-time imaging of individual neuronal cell bodies and axons in the brain of zebrafish[91]
4.3 组织病理学
活体组织检查对于医学诊断及判定疾病的存在与严重程度至关重要[92]。传统活检的组织病理学分析包括一系列繁琐的固定和染色步骤,这些步骤可能会对活检组织造成损伤[93]。目前,已经开发了多种无损伤的荧光显微技术,如共聚焦显微镜和多光子显微镜。这些技术具有复杂的操作设置、强烈的光漂白、较低的图像采集速率以及有限的三维成像能力,不适合临床组织病理学的快速应用。光片显微镜提供了一种快速、无需切片、低光漂白、非破坏性的活体组织检查,吸引了临床病理学家的广泛关注。然而,深层活体组织成像面临的一个主要挑战是光散射,深组织光片显微镜为突破传统组织病理学分析的局限提供了可能。
Glaser等[94]开发了非破坏性开放式光片显微镜(OT-LSM),OT-LSM将照明和收集物镜定向于垂直轴45°,并将它们放置在清除的样品下方,可以实现横向无约束成像[95]。该方法使用固体浸没透镜(SIL)和油层对进出玻璃板和组织样品的照明和收集光束进行折射率匹配,
图 9. 光片显微成像在组织病理学中的应用。(a)人类前列腺组织病理成像[94];(b)人类乳腺组织病理成像[94];(c)肾切片及单个肾小球、血管、肾小管及多通道DAPI对染成像[40]
Fig. 9. Applications of light-sheet microscopic imaging in histopathology. (a) Histopathological imaging of human prostate[94]; (b) histopathological imaging of human breast[94]; (c) renal sections and single glomeruli, blood vessels, tubules, and multichannel DAPI para-staining imaging[40]
5 结论
光片荧光显微成像技术因其独特的照明和探测方式,不仅具备了低光损伤、高分辨率和快速三维体成像的特性,更进一步优化了传统显微成像效果,成为生物医学领域开展多种复杂研究的主要工具。面对生物样本的多样性与复杂性,传统的光片荧光显微成像技术常常受限于光散射与组织穿透能力,研究人员通过对传统光片显微成像技术进行独特的优化,成功地突破了这一难题,从而在深组织成像领域得到了广泛的应用和研究。更为重要的是,随着技术的进步,光片荧光显微成像不仅能揭示单个细胞的结构和功能,还可以深入到细胞群体中,观察细胞之间的互动和通讯。这一突破性技术为人们理解复杂的生物过程,如细胞间信号传递、组织形成和疾病进展,提供了前所未有的视角。综合来看,深组织光片荧光显微成像技术不仅是生物医学成像领域的一大进步,更为人们打开了一个探索生命奥秘的全新窗口,预示着更多的科研突破和医学应用的可能性。
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Article Outline
周笑, 左超, 刘永焘. 深组织光片荧光显微成像研究进展(特邀)[J]. 激光与光电子学进展, 2024, 61(2): 0211010. Xiao Zhou, Chao Zuo, Yongtao Liu. Advances in Deep-Tissue Light-Sheet Fluorescence Microscopic Imaging (Invited)[J]. Laser & Optoelectronics Progress, 2024, 61(2): 0211010.