基于新型金属卤化物半导体和闪烁体的X射线探测与成像研究进展 下载: 2121次特邀综述
1 引言
X射线被广泛应用于工业、安检、医学、科研等领域[1-5],其穿透能力可实现对物质内部信息的无损探测[6]。不同物质对X射线的吸收能力不同,因而穿透物体后X射线的强度分布信息能反映物体内部的物质分布。根据实际应用区分,X射线成像主要包括平板成像和计算机断层扫描(CT)[7]。X射线的电离辐射会损伤遗传物质,增加被辐射者的风险,因此高灵敏和低剂量探测是研究X射线探测的主要方向[8]。探测材料的低性能和高成本是研究中面临的主要制约因素。
探测X射线主要有两种思路[9]。其中,利用闪烁体材料的间接型探测是最主流的方案。闪烁体将X射线光子转化为低能可见光子,然后通过光电探测器来间接探测X射线。间接型成像主要受限于较低的闪烁效率和光散射带来的串扰[10]。另一种方式是利用半导体材料进行直接型探测,主要受限于探测材料的灵敏度,仍未得到大规模应用。
卤化物钙钛矿是一种新型的光电材料,其卓越的性能使其在太阳能电池、发光二极管(LED)、激光器、光电探测器等光电器件中大放异彩[11-16]。近年来,卤化物钙钛矿凭借其强X射线吸收能力、高X射线响应灵敏度、优异的载流子传输性能,以及低成本的溶液制备方法,也被认为是一类非常有竞争力的X射线直接型探测材料[17-19]。目前基于卤化物半导体的X射线直接型成像设备已被成功演示[20-22]。此外,钙钛矿闪烁体的研究也取得了很大进展,基于不同发光原理的多个材料体系已经形成了[23-25]。本文将分别阐述直接型与间接型X射线探测和成像的基本原理,归纳研究进展,提出目前存在的一些问题与可能的研究方向。
2 X射线探测与成像的原理
2.1 X射线与物质相互作用机理概述
X射线是波长为0.01~10 nm的电磁波[26](
X射线与物质相互作用时发生的散射效应可以分为汤姆孙散射和康普顿散射[27]。汤姆孙散射是自由带电粒子对X射线的弹性散射,它不会改变X射线光子的动能和频率。康普顿散射是一种非弹性散射,入射X射线光子的能量会转移到电子,导致散射光子的频率相对于入射光子的频率变低。对于给定的散射角,随着入射X射线光子能量的增加,散射变得越来越非弹性,即康普顿散射逐渐主导X射线散射[6]。
物质对X射线的吸收效应一般被称为光电吸收,与可见光的吸收有所不同,其过程如
式中:
由此可知,光子能量越高的X射线的穿透能力越强,而含有重原子的物质则能更有效地衰减X射线。这一结论给探测材料提出了相应的要求,即平均原子序数高(含有重元素)和物质密度大的材料更适合吸收X射线。
2.2 直接型X射线探测原理
X射线的光子能量很高,足以电离各种物质,可以通过测量它对探测材料的电离程度实现直接型探测。直接型X射线探测器的常见探测材料有空气[28]和半导体。基于半导体的探测器具有辐射吸收性能好、灵敏度高、响应速度快和优秀的光子能量分辨能力,成为了研究的热点[29]。X射线与半导体材料相互作用后,半导体中的电子从价带被激发到高能态,进而通过碰撞电离产生大量的二次电子。这些高能电子及其二次电子会在很短的时间内热弛豫至导带,在半导体内部产生大量电子-空穴对(EHPs)。在半导体两端电极施加偏置电压,便可使这些载流子定向移动,从而产生电信号。如
直接型X射线探测分为三个过程:X射线的吸收、载流子(即电子-空穴对)的产生和电荷的运输[9]。在这些过程中,几个关键参数决定了探测器的性能。在第一个过程中,探测材料的平均原子序数(
图 4. 一些代表性半导体材料的线性吸收系数随X射线光子能量的变化[33]
Fig. 4. Linear absorption coefficients varying with photon energy for some representative semiconductors[33]
在第二个过程中,被吸收的X射线能量(
式中:
第三个过程即电荷运输是一个相当复杂的过程,各种因素都会对这一过程产生影响。这一过程的核心参数是载流子迁移率寿命积(
式中:
固然在探测器两端施加更大的电场(
2.3 间接型X射线探测原理
X射线间接型探测的基本过程是:闪烁体将入射的X射线光子转化为大量的低能量光子,这些光子随后被后端的光电探测器接收并产生信号[36](
X射线闪烁体中的光子转换机制也可分为三个阶段[36](
由于直接型和间接型X射线探测中第一阶段吸收的物理过程相同,所以由原子序数(
载流子的运输和发光是两个比较复杂的过程,光产额(LY)是衡量闪烁体在这两个阶段性能表现的重要标准,它被定义为闪烁体吸收每兆电子伏特(MeV)辐射能量后所能发射的光子数量。闪烁体的带隙决定了LY的理论极限[43]:
式中:
闪烁体的快速响应是X射线计算机断层扫描(CT)应用的一个基本要求[45],包括短衰减时间(τ)和低余辉。短的衰减时间使闪烁体能够与CT系统的高采样频率(104 Hz以上)相匹配,低余辉则可以减小镰状伪影对CT图像的不利影响。此外,闪烁体的稳定性和线性响应度也影响着闪烁体的实际应用。
2.4 直接型和间接型X射线成像原理
平板X射线成像仪(FPXI)是最常见的直接型X射线成像系统[30],目前主要在乳房摄影术中有所应用。FPXI的基本结构是通过在薄膜晶体管(TFT)阵列上制备X射线探测材料,然后在其表面蒸镀公共电极来制备的,因此每个像素都等同于一个独立的光电导型X射线探测器(
空间分辨率是X射线成像系统的一项重要性能,可以用调制传递函数(MTF)来确定,表示光学系统对输入信号的调制能力随空间频率变化的函数(以lp/mm为单位)[21]。为了比较不同的成像系统的性能,通常采用MTF下降到0.2时的空间频率值作为系统的空间分辨率[46]。斜边法是测量MTF曲线的常用方法[47],通过对锐利边缘的X射线图像(
式中:
事实上,目前市场上大多数X射线成像系统都基于间接探测,使用闪烁体屏幕与后端的光电探测器组成系统。系统后端采用电荷耦合器件(CCD)或互补金属氧化物半导体(CMOS)图像传感器的X射线相机的结构近年来发展迅速,其闪烁屏与相机芯片之间有多种耦合方式:透镜光学系统[
图 9. 闪烁体与相机芯片的两种耦合方式。(a)透镜光学系统;(b)光纤板
Fig. 9. Two coupled methods between scintillator screen and camera chip. (a) Optical system of lens; (b) fiber optic plate
3 基于钙钛矿的X射线探测与成像
3.1 基于传统半导体的直接型X射线探测与成像
自从van Heerden[52]于1945年首次将氯化银(AgCl)晶体作为辐射探测器进行研究以来,半导体X射线探测器取得了很大进展。高纯硅(Si)和高纯锗(Ge)被广泛应用于X射线(或γ射线)的能谱测量[28,53-56]。然而,由于Si和Ge晶体的带隙较窄,以它们为材料制成的探测器有相当大的热噪声,往往需要搭配笨重的冷却设备,这导致其应用不便[55]。与单原子半导体相比,化合物半导体由于可调谐的带隙和高Z元素的引入,为直接型X射线探测提供了更多的可能性。碲锌镉(CZT)是化合物半导体X射线探测器的典型材料[55,57-58]。其他基于碘化汞(HgI2)[59-61]、碘化铅(PbI2)[60,62-63]、氧化铅(PbO)[32]、溴化铊(TlBr)[64-65]等半导体材料的X射线探测器也实现了良好的性能。
在直接型X射线成像方面,目前应用比较成熟的材料是a-Se。
图 11. 基于a-Se的X射线直接型成像[30]。(a)AX-2430型FPXI;(b)手部X射线照片
Fig. 11. X-ray direct imaging based on a-Se[30]. (a) AX-2430 type FPXI; (b) X-ray image of hand
3.2 基于钙钛矿的直接型X射线探测与成像
近年来,卤化物钙钛矿(ABX3,X为Cl、Br或I)具有许多有益的特性,基于化合物半导体的直接型X射线探测器产生了革命性的发展。首先,卤化物钙钛矿材料体系中常见的元素Cs、Pb、Bi、Br和I都具有较高的
然而,由于卤化物钙钛矿众所周知的稳定性问题[69],其在高温、潮湿等恶劣环境下容易降解,面对高剂量的辐照(尤其是同步辐射或X射线自由电子激光器)时这一过程更会加速。同时,基于卤化物钙钛矿的闪烁体也可能在高剂量辐射下由于热效应而失效。因此,卤化物钙钛矿X射线探测材料往往需要严格的封装以隔绝水氧,这样才能在实际应用中保持长时间的稳定性。但是,卤化物钙钛矿却在辐照后表现出了独特的自愈性质[70-71],这一点或许可以用浅能级缺陷态导致的缺陷容忍度来解释[72-73]。
单晶钙钛矿的许多性能已经远超非晶硒,并逐步接近单晶CZT。Dong等[74]成功制备了三卤化物钙钛矿单晶(MAPbI3,MA=CH3NH3),载流子扩散长度大于175 μm。单晶的长度约为10 mm,厚度约为3 mm,如
图 12. 钙钛矿单晶X射线直接型探测与成像。(a)MAPbI3单晶[74];(b)MAPbBr3单晶与Si集成[20];(c)“N”字母X射线成像[20]
Fig. 12. X-ray direct detection and imaging based on perovskite single crystal. (a) MAPbI3 single crystal[74]; (b) integration of MAPbI3 single crystal and Si[20]; (c) X-ray imaging of letter "N"[20]
同时,也有不少研究对基于不同体系钙钛矿材料的X射线探测进行了探索。Choy团队[76]发现MAPbI3单晶的形状通常是非矩形十二面体,这在器件制造中不如MAPbBr3的矩形单晶方便。Huang等[77]利用A位阳离子工程改进钙钛矿材料体系,降低单晶中的电子-声子耦合强度,增加了材料缺陷形成能,提高了电荷收集效率。此外,全无机钙钛矿单晶(如CsPbBr3)的稳定性也引人关注[78],并基于此制造了铷掺杂CsPbBr3单晶探测器[79]、一维CsPbI3单晶探测器[80]以及柔性X射线探测器[81]。由于铅的毒性,无铅钙钛矿是另一个研究方向,其中卤化铋(Bi)钙钛矿是最有前景的一种新体系[82]。比较典型的材料是Cs2AgBiBr6双钙钛矿[
图 13. 双钙钛矿单晶X射线直接型探测[18]。(a)Cs2AgBiBr6单晶;(b)最低检测极限测试结果
Fig. 13. X-ray direct detection based on double perovskite single crystal[18]. (a) Cs2AgBiBr6 single crystal; (b) test results of lowest detection limit
尽管钙钛矿单晶探测器的性能普遍高于多晶探测器,但多晶钙钛矿更适合用于大面阵X射线成像应用。早在2015年,Yakunin等[22]就利用一块多晶钙钛矿太阳能电池[
图 14. 钙钛矿多晶X射线直接型探测与成像。(a)多晶钙钛矿太阳能电池[22];(b)树叶X射线图像[22];(c)钙钛矿FPXI[21];(d)手部X射线图像[21]
Fig. 14. X-ray direct detection and imaging based on perovskite polycrystal. (a) Polycrystalline perovskite solar cells[22]; (b) X-ray image of leaf[22]; (c) perovskite FPXI[21]; (d) X-ray image of hand[21]
此外,Shrestha等[93]提出了一种机械烧结工艺,制备出了毫米级厚度、结晶度良好的多晶MAPbI3晶圆[
图 15. 钙钛矿多晶膜制备工艺。(a)多晶MAPbI3晶圆及探测器结构[93];(b)Cs2AgBiBr6多晶圆片[83];(c)成像结果[83]
Fig. 15. Manufacturing technique of perovskite polycrystal film. (a) MAPbI3 polycrystal wafer and structure of detector[93];(b) Cs2AgBiBr6 polycrystal wafer[83]; (c) imaging results[83]
3.3 基于传统闪烁体的X射线间接型探测与成像
20世纪末,铽掺杂硫氧化钆(GOS∶Tb)荧光粉由于具有较高的光产额和X射线吸收效率,与感光胶片搭配后广泛用于高能(150 keV)胸部X射线成像[
图 16. 传统间接型X射线成像系统。(a)胸部X射线成像系统[7];(b)CsI针状结构[37];(c)CsI∶Tl晶体蒸发在TFT上[36];(d)两类闪烁体中的散射差异[39]
Fig. 16. Traditional indirect X-ray imaging system. (a) Chest X-ray imaging system[7]; (b) acicular structure of CsI[37]; (c) evaporation of CsI∶Tl crystals on TFT[36]; (d) difference of scattering between two kinds of scintillators[39]
近年来比较流行的是铊掺杂碘化铯晶体(CsI∶Tl)与大面积非晶硅TFT阵列的集成化成像系统,由于其具有独特的针状晶体结构[
CT系统中目前仍在使用的晶体材料是钨酸镉晶体(CdWO4),主要用于低端医用CT扫描仪,以及各种安检CT仪器[45]。CdWO4晶体具有良好的稳定性和不错的机械性能,可以微加工为二维闪烁体阵列[
图 17. 其他传统闪烁体。(a)CT系统中的玻璃闪烁体与探测器阵列[7];(b)SrI2∶Eu闪烁体[39];(c)LuAG∶Ce闪烁体[39]
Fig. 17. Other traditional scintillators. (a) Glass scintillators and detector array in CT system[7]; (b) SrI2∶Eu scintillators[39]; (c) LuAG∶Ce scintillators[39]
近年来,具有较高发光速率的三价铈离子掺杂闪烁体[98-99]和超高光产额的二价铕离子掺杂闪烁体[37,100],如LuAG∶Ce[
3.4 基于钙钛矿闪烁体的X射线间接型探测与成像
室温下钙钛矿单晶的光产额很低(小于1000 photon/MeV)[101-102],仅在低温时有不错的光产额[103]。有研究认为,钙钛矿单晶在室温下发生了严重的热淬灭,大部分载流子通过非辐射的方式复合,所以光产额很差[104]。
Asai的研究团队[105-107]使用量子限域效应制造二维钙钛矿,提高了晶体的激子结合能,减少了热淬灭,创造了各种具有超快响应的“量子闪烁体”。Koshimizu团队[108]进一步发展了这种二维钙钛矿闪烁体,合成出经典的(Phe)2PbBr4[Phe为C6H5(CH2)2NH3]晶体,如
图 18. 二维钙钛矿闪烁体。(a)(Phe)2PbBr4晶体[108];(b)亚纳秒时间分辨[109];(c)无铅二维钙钛矿闪烁体的成像演示[121]
Fig. 18. Two-dimensional perovskite scintillators. (a) (Phe)2PbBr4 crystal[108]; (b) sub-nanosecond time resolution[109]; (c) imaging demonstration of lead-free two-dimensional perovskite scintillators[121]
在2015年,Protesescu等[122]率先合成出了光致荧光量子效率(PLQY)接近90%的全无机钙钛矿纳米晶(CsPbX3,X为卤素),这种材料结构进一步加强了量子限域效应,其发光速率很高且几乎不发生非辐射复合,成为了非常高效的发光材料。不久,便有研究团队[23]看出了这种材料作为闪烁体的前景,研究了用于X射线成像的全无机钙钛矿纳米晶[CsPbX3,
图 19. 无机钙钛矿纳米晶闪烁体。(a)CsPbX3全无机钙钛矿纳米晶闪烁体的辐射发光(RL)光谱[23];(b)基于钙钛矿纳米晶闪烁体的间接型X射线成像仪[23];(c)CsPbBr3和GOS薄膜的成像分辨率对比[123];(d)高含量CsPbBr3纳米片溶液及制成的大面积薄膜[124];(e)CsPbBr3@Cs4PbBr6结构示意图[24]
Fig. 19. Inorganic perovskite nanocrystal scintillators. (a) RL spectra of CsPbX3 all-inorganic perovskite nanocrystal scintillators[23]; (b) indirect X-ray imager based on perovskite nanocrystal scintillators[23]; (c) comparison of imaging resolution between CsPbBr3 and GOS films[123]; (d) high-concent CsPbBr3 nanosheet solution and large area film[124]; (e) structural schematic of CsPbBr3@Cs4PbBr6[24]
图 20. 无机钙钛矿纳米晶闪烁体的改进。(a)钙钛矿玻璃闪烁体[126];(b)玻璃闪烁体在高温高湿环境下的稳定性测试[126];(c)玻璃闪烁体的高分辨率(约15 lp/mm)[126];(d)CsPbBr3液体闪烁体示意图及相应的成像演示[129]
Fig. 20. Improvement of inorganic perovskite nanocrystal scintillators. (a) Perovskite glass scintillators[126]; (b) stability test of glass scintillators under high temperature and high humidity[126]; (c) high resolution of glass scintillators (~15 lp/mm)[126]; (d) schematic diagram of CsPbBr3 liquid scintillators and corresponding imaging demonstration[129]
随着研究的不断深入,有研究者[131]意识到了直接带隙钙钛矿闪烁体的一个重要缺陷——自吸收效应。由于钙钛矿纳米晶的发光原理是带间复合,而且其斯托克斯位移很小[
图 21. CsPbBr3的自吸收效应及应对方案。(a)CsPbBr3的自吸收效应[131];(b)CsPbBr3与有机发光物质耦合形成塑料闪烁体[133]
Fig. 21. Self-absorption effect of CsPbBr3 and corresponding solution. (a) Self-absorption effect of CsPbBr3[131]; (b) CsPbBr3 is coupled with organic luminescent materials to form plastic scintillators[133]
既然基于带间复合发光的闪烁体都或多或少受自吸收效应的影响,那么寻找基于新发光原理的其他钙钛矿闪烁体也成为了一个研究方向。Hu等[135]报道了一种基于稀土离子轨道电子跃迁发光的双钙钛矿闪烁体[Cs2NaTbCl6,
图 22. 其他钙钛矿或卤化物闪烁体。(a)Cs2NaTbCl6晶体结构及粉末照片[135];(b)Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4In1-yBiyCl6晶格结构[25];(c)Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4In1-yBiyCl6的大斯托克斯位移[25];(d)CsI∶Tl与Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4In1-yBiyCl6的衰减寿命对照[25]
Fig. 22. Other perovskite or halide scintillators. (a) Crystal structure and powder photo of Cs2NaTbCl6[135]; (b) lattice structure of Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4In1-yBiyCl6[25]; (c) large Stokes shift of Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4In1-yBiyCl6[25]; (d) comparison of decay lifetime between CsI∶Tl and Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4In1-yBiyCl6[25]
4 总结与展望
钙钛矿X射线探测与成像已经显示出大规模商业化潜力,在各个方面都取得了很大的进展。与a-Se相比,钙钛矿具有X射线吸收能力强、本征灵敏度高、载流子运输能力强、最低检测极限低以及廉价的溶液制备方法等显著优点,成为目前最具前景的直接型X射线成像材料。然而,钙钛矿直接型X射线成像在实际应用中还存在一些问题需要解决。
基于钙钛矿材料的集成化X射线探测阵列的研究目前仍有很大困难。一是材料制备困难,目前仍没有能兼顾性能和成本的钙钛矿大面积厚膜制备方法,大尺寸钙钛矿单晶的高像素集成的技术难度可能更大,因此未来的研究需要进一步在大面积厚膜的制备工艺上努力,或尝试在钙钛矿单晶上开发高像素集成工艺。二是钙钛矿探测器的高暗电流问题,这一点在和TFT阵列集成时尤为严重。由于钙钛矿材料的带隙较小,离子移动很强,其暗电流比a-Se大很多,又因为X射线材料需要很大的厚度,所以每个像素自身的电容很小,其与TFT阵列耦合时,往往会出现暗电流填满像素电容的情况,严重影响了成像设备的动态范围。想要解决这个问题,一方面是需要在不影响器件灵敏度的前提下尽量抑制暗电流,另一方面可以设计更精巧的像素电路,在不扩大像素尺寸的前提下为每个像素并联更大的电容。另外,钙钛矿中的离子移动造成的暗态基线随时间漂移的问题需引起重视,笔者看来这是比暗电流更加亟待解决的问题,事实上这是造成目前大多数钙钛矿直接型平板成像失效的主要原因。随着时间推移,TFT背板中的电容被暗电流迅速填满,造成像素电荷满阱,其实这也是大多数钙钛矿单晶探测器无法获得高能量分辨率的主要原因。随着时间的推移,输出的电压脉冲高度也在改变,使得比较电路无法有效识别脉冲高度。这里建议在报道X射线探测器时进行高重复频率的X射线脉冲串测试,将脉冲串的稳定输出作为对比探测器性能的关键指标。最后,发展能谱分辨型X射线探测器也将成为重要研究方向,其技术路线大概可以分为光子计数型探测器(类比于CZT)和侧入射型探测器(类比于硅微条探测器)。
在钙钛矿闪烁体和间接探测方面,大多数钙钛矿纳米晶闪烁体的自吸收效应是必须克服的缺点,基于STE等发光机制的大斯托克斯位移闪烁体在X射线平板探测器等应用领域有超越传统闪烁体的潜力,如何平衡闪烁体光产额和发光寿命则需要根据具体应用场合设计,找到一个可以应用所有场合的绝对完美闪烁体仍是巨大挑战。另一方面,钙钛矿纳米晶闪烁体的快速发射是其独特优势,未来的研究可基于其较短的荧光寿命,探索其在时间分辨领域的应用前景。此外,低光学散射闪烁屏的制作工艺仍有很多发展空间,可能的方向包括热蒸镀法(类比于目前的针状CsI)、多孔模板填充法、溶液纳(微)米线制备法和透明陶瓷基质等。
总之,在未来的钙钛矿X射线探测与成像研究中,还需要更多从实际应用出发,解决关键问题。相信钙钛矿将成为一种出色的X射线探测材料,在X射线成像中具有广阔的应用前景。
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Article Outline
马文博, 匡翠方, 刘旭, 杨旸. 基于新型金属卤化物半导体和闪烁体的X射线探测与成像研究进展[J]. 光学学报, 2022, 42(17): 1704002. Wenbo Ma, Cuifang Kuang, Xu Liu, Yang Yang. Research Progress of X-Ray Detection and Imaging Based on Emerging Metal Halide Semiconductors and Scintillators[J]. Acta Optica Sinica, 2022, 42(17): 1704002.